Table 3 Mechanisms in stimulated BBB opening

PDT

• RhoA phosphorylation leads decreased VE-cadherin expression

• VE-cadherin and ZO-1 orientation shift perpendicular to cell membrane (immature state)

• Actin rendering, occludin from insoluble to soluble state

[80]

[76]

[82]

LITT

• Heat stress TJ proteins, increase in NO, Clauding-5 expression decreases

[157]

tDSC

• Increases convection through TJs

• Downregulation of ZO-1 and nitric oxide mediated opening

[99]

[106]

L-PEF

• Remodelling of Actin, decrease in VE-cadherin and ZO-1 expression

[115, 123]

EP

• F/G-actin ratio decrease, TJ proteins decrease, actin remodelling

[121]

FUS

• Reduced expression of occludin, claudin-5, and ZO1

• Shear stress-dependent CA²⁺ channels, hyperpolarise cell membrane causing vasodilation

• Nitric oxide synthase activation, VE-cadherin shift (immature state)

[129, 153]

[152]