Animal source | Plasmodium strain | Method to evaluate BBB integrity | Degree of impairment | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) | P. knowlesi | Examination of movement of proteins across the BBB by radiometric and fluorimetric methods | Increase of BBB permeability | |
Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) | P. fragile | Electron microscopy, immunohistochemical analysis (CD36, thrombospondin, ICAM-1), formation of rosettes | Parasitized red blood cells sequestration and adherence to endothelial cells in the cerebral microvessels, neurological symptoms similar to humans | [112] |
Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) | P. coatneyi | Clinical observation | Anemia, coagulopathy, and renal and metabolic dysfunction | [113] |
Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) | P. coatneyi | Tissue samples from the brain (cortex and white matter of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and midbrain) collected for quantitation of mRNA expression of cytokines, adhesion molecules, and iNOS | Expression of pro-inflammatory and T helper-1 cytokines, adhesion molecules, and iNOS appears to predominate in the cerebellum of infected rhesus monkeys | [114] |
A/J and CBA/H mice | P. berghei (ANKA) | Detection of the movement of the dye Evans blue, radioisotope labelled albumin and erythrocytes | Breakdown of BBB | [115] |
mouse | P. berghei (K173) | Histochemical and histological evaluation of cerebral lesions and their distribution | Progressive deterioration of BBB integrity | |
CBA/T6, Balb/c and DBA/2 J mice | P. berghei (ANKA and K173) | Evaluation of neurological signs (ataxia, hemiplegia and coma) | Increased permeability of BBB | [119] |
Mouse | P. berghei (ANKA) | Multimodal magnetic resonance techniques (imaging, diffusion, perfusion, angiography, spectroscopy). | BBB breakdown | [120] |
CM- resistant BALB/c mice | P. berghei (ANKA) | Evaluation of pro-inflammatory cytokines produced | BBB breakdown | [121] |
C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice | P. berghei (NK65) | Histopathological analysis of cerebral tissue | Increased permeability of BBB | [122] |
TNF-α-and LT-α-deficient mice | P. berghei (ANKA) | Histochemical and histological evaluation | Neurological signs of CM, associated with perivascular brain haemorrhage in TNF-α -/- mice; completely resistant to CM in LT-α -/- mice | [47] |
Mouse | P. berghei (ANKA) | Examination of the outcome of TGF-β and TNF-α production in the context of splenocyte apoptosis | Critical balance between TGF-β and TNF-α might have a key role in BBB breakdown | [123] |
Different murine models: CBA/CaJ and Swiss Webster mice (CM sensitive), Balb/c and A/J mice (CM resistant) | P. berghei (ANKA) P. yoelii (17XL) P. berghei (NK65) and P. yoelii (YM) | Examination of histopathological alterations, BBB dysfunction, or neurological signs | CM related to the opening of paracellular-junctional and transcellular-vesicular fluid transport pathways at the neuroimmunological BBB | [124] |